Children's literature - Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, Lewis Essay

Children's literature - Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, Lewis Carroll Short story - Essay Example to be following a white rabbit to a hole, which is a doorway to the wonderland where Alice meets with different creatures and experiences a completely new realm in her life. From getting big to small, making friends to nemesis and from saving to being subjected to execution, Alice finds that all that had happened was just a dream and not reality. Henceforth, we will examine three aspects of the novel which are, the notions about and standpoint towards children of that era, how are literary techniques employed to present the children of the Victorian period and how does this literature provide a look on the characteristics of world and the quintessence established. Published in 1865, Alice’s Adventure in Wonderland was set in the late eighteen hundred, Victorian period in Britain. The author, though, illustrates a child who is curious, observant and stubborn, but possesses a good heart, has not specifically pointed out anything that may represent the children of those times and what were the concepts about children during the Victorian period. Hence, with the help of the historical and geographical background of the novella, we will expound and propound the theories that concern a child of that era and what kind of attitude they were subjected to. There are numerous sources available that give us an insight on the topic under scrutiny and we have availed some of those resources. Starting with the book by (Pollock), the author claims that the attitude towards children during the eighteenth century in Britain was not very different from the rest of the world. The children were not allowed to indulge in their curiosity like in the book of Carroll. Instead the upbringings of the children were excessively harsh and if not harsh, then they were not likable or appreciable. From physical to emotional, abuse was common enough in the Victorian era and parents expected unshakable obedience and respect from their children all the time, either by the nature itself or with the

Systems Thinking and Constraint Management Part II Assignment

Systems Thinking and Constraint Management Part II - Assignment Example Until now, the difference I find between your organization and mine in the way they approach systems thinking has to do with the emphasis your organization but on people in making the system work, while we focus on the system in making the people work. Example of the system is the performance model used in my organization. Shireman, W. K. (1999). Business strategies for sustainable profits: Systems thinking in practice. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, Syst. Res., 16(5), 453–462. Retrieved from the Walden Library databases. Very readily, what I have learnt from your posting is that organizational growth is a continuous process, which requires that companies will constantly keep up with their efforts towards growth (Jacob, Bergland & Cox, 2010). This comes from the number of efforts I identify your company as putting in place to make systems solution work. To add to your thoughts however, I am of the opinion that it is time your organization focused on the organizational culture as a resource in itself and trying to make this work for the organization. This can be done by creating an organizational principle where each person is expected to function according to the business culture that prevails in the organization. Because the business culture is often set with the goals of the organization in mind, each person would then become a contributor towards constraint management because they will be acting not for themselves but for the larger organization (Shireman, 1999). already, I see a similarity betwee n your organization and mine in the way you emphasize on systems instead of people. It is for this reason that I believe this approach can work best for you. Shireman, W. K. (1999). Business strategies for sustainable profits: Systems thinking in practice. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, Syst. Res., 16(5), 453–462. Retrieved from the Walden Library

Love- Ralston Valley Volunteer Fire Department Case Study

Love- Ralston Valley Volunteer Fire Department - Case Study Example e promotion objectives the Rick Wyatt should include in the marketing plan; and (2) to determine the promotional methods that should be designed and used to achieve those objectives. The promotion objectives that should be included in Rick Wyatt’s marketing plan are as follows: (1) to enhance public awareness for the recruitment of committed firefighter volunteers; (2) to apprise the community of the mission, vision and goals of the RVVFD; and (2) to use effective promotional and advertising mediums to ensure that an increase in the number of committed volunteers to as much as 20% per annum would be reached. the need to recruit new volunteers could be attained through effective use of promotional methods. Rick Wyatt, as a marketing degree major, is fully aware that the use of contemporary mediums, like social networking sites, is a potentially effective promotional avenue. As indicated, committed volunteers are needed to be recruited within the age range of 20 to 40. To tap this age group, social networking sites are most appropriate such as using Facebook and Twitter accounts. RVVFD should therefore design an official website where their mission, vision and goals are identified; as well as the plans for recruitment. All needed qualifications could be relayed such as preferred age ranges, physical fitness, genuine interest and commitment, and the benefits of camaraderie and giving back to society. Local newspapers and radio programs could also advertise the need for new volunteers who meet the identified criteria. The use of flyers, posters and spreading the word through current volunt eers’ employment affiliations could be potential sources of new recruits. Finally, by holding a scheduled fund-raising event, Wyatt could use this event to announce that RVVFD is recruiting more committed members and that the ideals and vision of the organization could be effectively announced and

Next Generation Science Standards and the Common Core State Standards Essay

Next Generation Science Standards and the Common Core State Standards - Essay Example I believe this will serve a critical role in ensuring students develop ideas and facts through access to various pieces of information. Exposing students to various forms of facts will help them make credible arguments will reliable facts. This will be valuable to the filed of science where students are faced with difficulties of understanding and accumulating facts. The article also talks of the essence of gaining knowledge in the organization of ideas. This is seen as an important factor in the field of science. I believe this is instrumental in teaching and learning. This is because the organization of ideas also helps in an organization of facts. As a result, it will be easy to support each idea with a fact and hence improve student learning and understanding of a particular concept. The use of the two concepts will be useful to the teaching fraternity. The teachers will find it easy in achieving their goals in class. This is because it will be easy for teachers to make various c oncept of science be understood by students. Students will then be able to engage in attentive and close reading of science text. In conclusion, it is clear that learning science is a critical thing. This can only be achieved through a critical approach of various texts in the field. The teachers can improve this understanding by using the two standards together in science classes. The use of two tools together will help students in significant ways.

Abortion is the Denial of Every Liberty without further Argument Essay

Abortion is the Denial of Every Liberty without further Argument - Essay Example Devoid of the privilege towards life, the other privileges are worthless. It is one of the most debated topics of this century. They have been performed for years, legally and illegally, all for the sake of one thing... to end an unwanted pregnancy. In modern society, abortion has become the number one birth control pill. A woman who happens to pregnant often believes abortion as their initial alternative. Because being poor, too young, unmarried, and not wanting a baby is most popular reasons for women to have an abortion. Another most common issue involving abortion is rape. Some women keep in mind that terminating a pregnancy might have to do with the health of the pregnant woman, or maybe this woman is unable to concentrate on the child’s needs after it’s born. In today’s society, more and more women are becoming pregnant at earlier ages. The majority of these women will opt to get an abortion while the rest will either keep the child or give it up for adoption. Some abortions may occur because contraception fails or because of a serious medical condition of the mother, which could lead to her death. In these situations, abortion is often the only way that prevents the birth of an unwanted child or saves a mothers life. So whatever our society decides to do with abortion, remember the effects that could happen to the world as a whole. She does this by her own free will, and she can control over what she is doing. So, if women are going to participate in this risky and unsafe practice, then they must be ready to pay the consequences; killing the innocent baby does not show any responsibility at all. They think the fetus is not yet a human being. Abortion certainly leads to health problems. According to some mothers, the worst part of having an abortion is the emotional pain that it brings once it is done (MariAnna, 2002).  Ã‚  

The Social Science Theory of Feminism Essay Example for Free

The Social Science Theory of Feminism Essay The social science theory of feminism is one of the core theories that can help us understand the social issue of people trafficking. Feminism is a collection of movements which work towards equality between men and women in all aspects of life. There are three strands of feminism which are consisted of, Liberal feminism, Marxist feminism and Radical feminism. Marxist feminism is comprised from the idea that capitalism is the root of women’s oppression, and thus feminist move towards dismantling capitalism in order to liberate women. Radical feminism focuses on the theory that patriarchy is a system of power which shapes society into a complex of relationships, based on the hypothesis that ‘male power’ oppresses women (Turner, 2006). Finally, Liberal feminism emphasises equality between men and women through political and legal reform, which is the most relevant strand of feminism in helping us understanding the social issue of people trafficking, as there are many debates about the political and moral plans in supporting our understanding of such an issue, and also our approach towards it. Furthermore, feminism plays a very important part in understanding and solving human trafficking as feminists bring this social issue on the international agenda. The definition of human trafficking can be best described in the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children article three, â€Å"The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability, or the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. (Schloenhardt, Beirne Corsbie, 2009, pp. 28 – 29). One of the main differences between human trafficking and human smuggling is mainly the fact of exploitation, people being trafficked usually have had no free will in their decisions. Although the Protocol may have a definition for human trafficking, there is no set answer to the definition of this issue, as there is no universal nature. There are many factors that lead to this exploitation, a few of the main ones includes, economic instability, vulnerability, lack of education from family and birth order (Blackburn, Taylor Davis, 2010, p. 08). Furthermore human trafficking is linked very closely with sex trafficking as women and sometimes men are trafficked into the country for the sole purpose of sexual exploitation. One of the big issues faced with the social issue of human trafficking is the lack of statistics and data that can be gathered about this issue, mainly based on the fact that many cases go undetected and thus there isn’t sufficient evidence for further investigations (Schloenhardt, Beirne Corsbie, 2009, p. 30). Moreover, difference sources of information have wide differences in the estimates of people trafficked in Australia, for example the government would state several hundred persons are trafficked into Australia each year, however advocacy groups and non government organisations state several thousand (Schloenhardt, Beirne Corsbie, 2009, p. 224). As stated before, feminism is a theory that is strongly used in understanding the issue of human trafficking, however within the feminism movements, there are activists who have different perspectives about sex work, which to an extend broadens our views of human trafficking. This includes the Neo-abolitionists, organisations like the Coalition Against Trafficking in Women (CATW) who believe that sex work is gender based violence, and women are forced to be sex workers, not by choice. However on the other side there are the pro sex workers and alliances such as Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women (GAATW) who believe that women have a choice to be sex workers, as sex work is a legitimate form of labour. Although there are some differences, many similarities still appear that highlights the main beliefs of feminists. Such as within the anti-trafficking strategy, pushing for decriminalization of prostitution, as this can cause many issues, discussed further on in the essay (Lecture, SLSP1000: Problems and issues in social science: Sex trafficking, presented on 2nd May 2011 at The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Dr Sanja Milivojevic). When dealing with a social issue such as human trafficking, complexities within approaches to solving the issue is always present. The political approaches to the issue are implemented by the government, and also appear to be a positive outcome for trafficked people, but there are always possible hidden agendas. Furthermore during times the government implements laws and legislations without the personal interest of the trafficked in thought. However theories such as feminism allow us to also approach the issue in a moral aspect, and understand a broader perspective. In the United States of America, in 2000 the Palermo Protocol was adopted in hopes of addressing the issue of human trafficking, and soon after many other international and regional strategies were created to fight trafficking (Lecture, SLSP1000: Problems and issues in social science: Sex trafficking, presented on 2nd May 2011 at The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Dr Sanja Milivojevic). Furthermore the United States and other countries of the world adopted the 3P paradigm, which is a framework to combat contemporary forms of slave labor. The P’s stand for, prevention, usually the methods revolved around raising public awareness for the source and destination countries, in order to inform and educate them about human trafficking. Protection, this revolved around protecting the victims of trafficking, also in the United States under the Trafficking Victims Protections Act 2000, governments have a responsibility to provide identified victims of trafficking to remain in the country, work and obtain service. Finally, prosecution involves the prosecution of the traffickers. Except, how accurate could the government be in preventing trafficking, if there is not much solid evidence to help improve the flaws within the anti trafficking strategies? Furthermore a lot of victims of sex trafficking have to be sought out, as they will not come forward of this injustice on their own (Maltzahn, 2001), thus locating these women in order to solve the social issue is proved to be more difficult. Furthermore studies in Britain have shown that when detained, only a few women testify, and the rest usually are asked to be deported back, fearful that their exploiters would believe evidence was given against them, and thus could proceed with threats made to the victims and their families (Maltzahn, 2001). Unlike the United States, Australia uses the 3D framework, detention, deportation and disempowerment, which has be ridiculed for governments acting out of self interest, and ridding of the burden of illegal workers in all forms. Also, in Australia some women who are detained for entering Australia illegally, are victims of sex trafficking, however the Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (DIMIA) do not ask the detainees if they were trafficked instead of smuggled (Malzahn, 2001). In relation to the problem, even if the women were asked, a few would admit to being trafficked, not knowing that they are victims of a serious social issue. Based on the idea that a lack of education leaves women and children not knowing what they have gotten themselves into, as a lot of women are either tricked into the exploitation, believing they were going to work in retail industries and such. In addition, the government’s system of sending the women back to their home country is a very large flaw, as sending them back without knowing if they were the subject of a crime, simply subjects them to being trafficked again, if not to be a social outcast (Malzahn, 2001). In contrast to the government’s solution of ridding of the detainees, and preventing future traffickers, the social theory of feminism allows for this issue to be seen from a more non positivist point of view. As feminists obviously do not view prosecution as their main priority but instead focuses on offering support for the women who had suffered violence, this broadens our understanding of the issue as we view it from a non political view (Malzahn, 2001). Adding to the role feminism plays in this social issue, although human trafficking usually victimises women, it shows the ability of women to take a lead in the struggles of the inequality of the world, and even put gender issues to the top of government agendas. Furthermore, feminists have raised much awareness of this social injustice, and pushed governments to enforce legalisation (Heredia, 2007, p. 311). For example, it was feminists like Josephine Burtlet that pushed for the first international instrument again the ‘white slave trade’ (Heredia, 2007, p. 12). In addition, there are many complexities that occur when researching the subject of human trafficking. One of the main factors is the strong focus on sex trafficking, and the lack of focus in the other forms. Also, there is a limited focus on the men who are effect by sex trafficking and other forms of exploitation. However, adapting the feminist view towards this issue, feminism primarily believes in the equality between men and women, and thus expands our thinking perspective on that fact that not only women are exploited but also men. The main complexity of researching human trafficking is the access to victims, proper research cannot be accomplished if victims are not willing to share their story of how they were exploited, thus making it difficult to prevent future trafficking from happening (Lecture, SLSP1000: Problems and issues in social science: Sex trafficking, presented on 2nd May 2011 at The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Dr Sanja Milivojevic). In an attempt to combat human trafficking, there are certain patterns in Australia that can be noticed, for example the profiles of victims are usually, women, and the majority of women are usually from South East Asian countries. Based on research, most victims are promised employment in Australia, however whether or not victims knew they were surrendering themselves to sex work is not clear. Furthermore it has been research that upon arrival to Australia women are usually expected to work off the debt they have accumulated in coming to Australia, having to work a certain amount of jobs (Schloenhardt, Beirne Corsbie, 2009, p. 2). It has also been stated that offenders are usually organised criminals, and ethnically based, however these stereotypes can lead to more harm than good, as they provide an inaccurate understanding of what governments should be looking out for. Referring back to the impact that feminism has on the understanding of this social issue, it is evident that the approach of feminism impacts strongly on the possible improvement research methods of people trafficking. The feminist empiricist approach to researching social issues violates empiricism in a way as androcentrism seeps into the social research (Smith, 2010, p. 313), and thus a more effective form of research would be in a non positivist view (Choo, Jang Choi, 2010). Using methods of research such as ethnography, will allow for social scientists to understand the whole story of victims to people trafficking, and thus have a deeper understanding of the issue. Furthermore, if legal sex workers were to be present while talking to victims of sex trafficking, it could prove to be a source of comfort for the victims, as they can relate to a certain extent (Maltzahn, 2001). Moreover, interviewing can be used as a research method to gain a greater insight into the issue; also interviews can be conducted two ways, either formally or informally, based upon the victim. Thus, the theory of feminism can help us understand the social issue better, as it gives us a broader view of ways we can approach solving this issue and understanding it to the best we can as outsiders. In conclusion, the core theory of feminism has proven effective in aiding to understand the social issue of people trafficking. As the majority of people being trafficked are women, and thus, the support behind solving and understanding this issue is much related. Furthermore, feminism broadens the perspective on ways to view the victims and forms of research, such as ethnography and interviews, approaching from a non-positivist perspective, allowing for a greater comprehension of the issue.

The main concepts of the behaviorist perspective theory

The main concepts of the behaviorist perspective theory As a reaction to the introspective analysis method in psychology and the focus on the study of mental processes, conscious or unconscious that dominated the beginning of the last century and was considered the object of psychology at that time  [1]  , a new approach was developed under the name of behaviorism. This new psychotherapeutic approach was to dominate psychology for about 50 years. Precursors of this approach are the American psychologist Edward Lee Thorndike  [2]  and the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov  [3]  , but the one who is considered the father of behaviorism and established its theoretical and practical fundaments is John Watson  [4]  . Behavior becomes the focus of psychological investigation because it is the only one that can be scientifically studied and quantified, predicted and controlled. The behaviorist assumptions are that: psychology should be seen as a science and therefore it should deal with observable behaviors that generate empirical data; the environment plays a decisive role in determining behavior as opposed to the psychic inner processes; all behavior is learnt from environment and this learning process is similar to animals. In contrast with the vague concepts used by introspectionism, behaviorism places a high emphasis on the use of operational definitions that is defining various concepts in terms of observable events that may be used to describe human experience in terms of stimuli and responses. A specific characteristic of behaviorism is parsimony seeking the simplest possible explanation for any event  [5]  . Key concepts of behaviorism comprise the stimulus response (S-R) equation, the classical and operant conditioning, and the reinforcement and punishment notions. The method used to analyze behavior is the lab experiment which gave the possibility to manipulate the independent variable in order to study the dependent variable. Stimulus is a measurable change in the environment any object, fact, event or situation that may have an impact on behavior, while response is a measurable change in behavior any reaction to a stimulus either environmental or mental. The behaviorist theory excludes thoughts, feelings and other mental occurrences, and genetic factors as well, that is everything that cannot be study objectively, in observable terms. Watson took further Pavlovs idea of conditioning  [6]  and applied it to humans. According to him humans are born tabula rasa and the behavior is simply learnt from the environment through a process of conditioning. In a famous and controversial experiment because of its ethical implications, Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned Little Albert an 18-months old toddler to develop a fear response to rats, by associating the rat NS with a strong noise UCS. They conducted their research following the classical conditioning scheme: Noise (UCS) Anxiety (UCR); Noise (UCS) + Rat (NS) Anxiety (UCR); Rat (CS) Anxiety (CR)  [7]  . Close related to the process of classical conditioning is the generalization that occurs. Thus, stimuli similar to the original CS would tend to elicit the same CR. In the case of Little Albert it was reported that the boy was showing strong signs of anxiety to all fluffy objects, which were similar to the white rat used in experiment. Stimulus generalization results in responding to a whole class of related stimuli, after initial learning with a single stimulus and can enable organisms to adapt better to their environment though it may not always be adaptive  [8]  . Behaviorists draw the conclusion that generalization is the first response of an organism when encountering new situations. Sometimes this generalization may take the form of stereotyping that occurs when generalizing based on group membership. To fight this phenomenon, behaviorists undertook and exemplified through research the concept of stimulus discrimination  [9]  , according to which an organism may be tr ained to discriminate between two or more stimuli that progressively increase in alikeness. As Glassman and Haddad point out stimulus discrimination always requires training in the absence of such training, organisms tend to generalize (emphasis theirs)  [10]  . Opposed to the concept of conditioning is the concept of extinction which suggests that what can be learned can also be unlearned, and that a conditional response is not necessarily permanent  [11]  . However, as some research indicate  [12]  , extinction is likely to appear in humans in some basic behaviors involving muscle responses like withdrawing from a hot surface, but not in complex behaviors which involve fear responses or other responses of the automatic nervous system and which are very hard to extinguish. Using Pavlovs extinction procedure, Watson and Rayner tried to eliminate the conditioned fear response associated with rats in Little Alberts case by presenting the rat for a period of three weeks w ithout associating it with the gongs noise. Contrary to their expectation the fear did not extinguish. Stimulus generalization and discrimination concepts as well as the extinction principle have a great importance for our discussion because they will be used in the process of developing behavioral psychotherapeutic techniques. Skinner developed the concept of operant conditioning. He argues that all behavior is modeled by complex reinforcement patterns from the environment. In his view, humans and animals actively engage with their environment, as opposed to the Watsonian emphasis on classical conditioning where they are more passive waiting for the environment to produce stimuli to which they may respond to. Skinners main idea is that human behavior is determined by the consequences of its past behavior. If from a Watsonian perspective the behavior is triggered by external stimuli, starting with Skinner the behavior may be elicited by internal stimuli as well, as a result of past internalized experiences. Thus operant conditioning is a type of learning where future behavior is determined by the consequences of past behavior. According to Skinner the past behavior may influence feature behavior depending on three types of consequences: if it had no consequence, the probability of that behavior to occur in the future is neuter; if the consequence is found pleasant, then the behavior is likely to be repeated in the future this was called positive reinforcement; if the consequence is negative, then it acts as a punishment and makes that specific behavior unlikely to appear in the future. By extrapolation, learning occurs through manipulation of positive reinforcements and punishments. Newer behaviorist approaches acknowledge that although the two types of conditioning reflex and operant were developed independent of each other by different researchers, they are interconnected and in real life situations both processes can occur simultaneously  [13]  . Practice therapeutic process and methods The behavior therapeutic approach emerged from these behavioral principles of classical and operant conditioning. All behavior is learnt and therefore abnormal behavior is seen as the result of faulty learning. In order to cure the individual needs to learn the correct behavior. The behavioral therapy applying the principle of here and now focuses on the present behavior which the patient finds problematic as opposed to the psychodynamic therapy that focuses on identifying and uncovering unconscious conflicts from childhood. The therapist sees the patient as standing at the intersection between genetic inheritance and learning that occurred through interaction between individual and environmental stimuli. These result in maladaptive thoughts, feelings, attitudes and verbal behavior. Conventionally, the psychotherapeutic process starts by behavior analysis  [14]  . The focus is on indentifying the current stimulus response relationship. Based on the disruptive behaviors identified the therapist designs a program (the psychotherapeutic process) meant to help the patient unlearn the faulty responses and if appropriate learn more adaptive behaviors. The patient is explained how the psychotherapy works, how the conditioned responses were learnt somewhere in the past and how the very same behavioral responses can be modified using the techniques of behavioral therapy. According to Bennet, behavior therapy differs from psychoanalytic therapies in the following regards: it is directive, the therapist actively involves in the therapeutic process, using methods based on learning principles; the goal of therapy is different in that it intends to change behavior not to reconstruct personality; the therapy is shorter than other forms; the interventions are symptom specific, closer to the medical model of intervention rather than the psychoanalytic catharsis or insight  [15]  . Behavioral techniques emerged from the classical conditioning principle involve systematic desensitisation, aversion therapy, implosion therapy and flooding. Operant conditioning techniques are related to what is commonly known in therapy as behavior modification, behavior shaping and token economy. Systematic desensitization is the treatment of choice for phobias and various anxiety inducing behaviors. It aims at replacing the patients anxiety response with a relaxation one, by increasingly exposing the patient to a hierarchy of stimuli from the less anxiety evoking to the anxiety evoking stimulus itself. During the process, the patient goes to the next stage of the stimulus hierarchy only after succeeding to be fully relaxed in the present of the previous stimulus. This method requires the training of the patient in relaxation techniques  [16]  and involves the use of imagination, since when is impossible to be confronted with the actual situation (like is the case in social p hobias) the patient has to imagine being in those situations, following that life itself will offer opportunities to see if the therapy is successful or not. So, the exposure can be done in vitro or in vivo, depending on the phobic stimulus. However, studies have emphasized that the important factor in curing is the exposure to the feared object or situation by breaking the avoidance cycle created and reinforced in any phobia. Aversion therapy is used to induce an aversive response to stimuli which are associated with existing undesirable behaviors. It has been used in trying to treat alcoholic addiction, by associating a nausea producing drug or a small electric shock with the undesired behavior of drinking. As a result of this stimuli association, the patient is provoked to vomit. This supposedly might determine the patient avoid drinking in the future. However, this method raises serious ethical and effectiveness problems, the rates of relapse being reportedly very high. Implosion therapy and flooding involve that the patient has to face the worst possible fear producing situation, in imagination only in the former and in the physical context in the latter. In contrast with systematic desensitization which presupposes a gradual exposure to the stimuli, these techniques are more radical and less time consuming. If successful, the patient might be cured of a phobia in one hour. The advantage of this method is that the patient learns that there are no objective bases for his/her fear by accepting to openly confront it. Ethical problems are associated as well in regard to suffering from therapy. Derived from operant conditioning, the behavior modification method is largely used in educational and clinical psychology contexts. It reinforces desired behaviors and ignores or punishes undesired ones. This techniques raises problems in choosing reinforcers since people can potentially respond to a wide range of such stimuli. Similar to behavior modification is the behavior shaping technique successfully used in working with autistic children in order to maintain a desired behavior. Another operant application has been used in institutions (for examples schools and hospitals) within the programs called token economies, where conditioned reinforcers are offered to strengthen specific behaviors. Tokens are offered in exchange of a desired behavior and can later be transformed in something that the individual wants. Token behave as a secondary reinforcement for the primary reinforcements which are in fact desired. It may be also used to extinguish undesired behaviors by taking away t he earned tokens to punish undesired behavior. Taken economies are uncommon and inefficient in treating mental disorders, although they might contribute to alleviating some disruptive behaviors associated with mental disorders, such as aggressiveness, inadequate social interaction and use of bad language  [17]  . Evaluation of the approach strengths and limits One of the major strengths of this approach is questionably considered its scientific background. Developed from lab experiments on animals (Pavlov-dogs, Thorndike cats, Watson rats, Skinner pigeons and rats) it focuses exclusively on behavior which can be observed and objectively measured. The behaviorist human being is concrete, realistic, determined in its actions by the environment and the society that he/she lives in. This theoretical approach proved to be productive in creating psychotherapeutic methods, mainly successful in the area of phobias and addictions. Compared to other approaches behaviorism is supported by many experiments. However, there are discrepancies between the empirical and the theoretical developments in behaviorism, which is considered a limitation of the approach. Initial empirical studies were made on animals (as mentioned above) while the theoretical studies are done by generalizing observations made on animals upon humans. This fact cumulated with the declared behaviorists rejection of the importance of mental processes offers a very fragmented and simplistic view of human being. Watson believed that observing and describing behavior is enough to predict and control it. Thus, he eliminated explanation from psychology. Psychic life was acknowledged but its understanding was not considered necessary because it will finally manifest itself at behavioral level. At this point we need to reconsider what meaning we give to the term scientific, in regard to our double perspective taken by the present work. If scientific means that positive methods in studying human being (similar to the study of rocks, animals, meteorological phenomena etc.) are favored, then we might as well consider this psychological approach a step forward on the terrain of positive science. But if scientific means to conceptualize the human being in all its wholeness in order to understand its starting point, its inner resorts and teleological direction, then behaviorism might be seen as an unacceptable lessening of the complexity and mystery of human being. The intense use of lab experiments present the disadvantage of a low ecological validity  [18]  . In time it became obvious that understanding of behavior cannot come from the laboratory. On the other hand behaviorism was criticized as being reductionist by eliminating the meditational processes and too deterministic by the fact that human being is presented as not possessing free will. Another weakness identified by ethnological studies show that the principles of conditioning are not as universal as was once asserted  [19]  . However, maybe the most informed criticism is provided from within, by a behavior therapist like Lazarus connected with Joseph Wolpe, who states in regard to behavior therapy that: the methods of behavior therapy are extremely effective when applied to carefully selected cases by informed practitioners. But when procedures overstep the boundaries of their legitimate terrain, ridicule and disparagement are most likely to ensue. Far from being a panacea, the methods are then held to have no merit whatsoever, and the proverbial baby gets thrown out with the bath waterà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The danger lies in a premature elevation of learning principles into unwarranted scientific truths  [20]  . Comparison with psychodynamic perspective Within the behaviorist approach various theorists hold positions that may vary in some degrees but fundamentally assert the same thing: behavior is the new found object of psychology; this allows psychology to behave and to be considered a natural science; a belief that its legitimate to study the animal behavior and compare it with human behavior; the emphasis on environment as causation of behavior and consequently dismiss mental processes. The psychodynamic and behaviorist perspectives on human being are opposed. They started from very different points in defining what human being is. Furthermore, the behaviorism appeared as a reaction to psychoanalysis and other currents in psychology that used the method of introspection to define and explain the inner, immaterial and unseen mental processes. Their approach was considered by behaviorists as mysticism. The focus in psychodynamic theories and practice is on inner processes that are seen as motivating and influencing behavior, while the focus in behaviorist theories and practice is on the outer world, i.e. environment that is seen as determining behavior. The change in psychoanalysis comes by uncovering unconscious conflicts that are the underlying causes of behavior, while the change in behaviorism comes by manipulating the environment in order to remove undesirable behavior. These opposing perspectives do not completely eliminate dialogue since the unification point i s the human being itself. For example, if a Freudian theorist suggests that adult behavior can best be understood by looking at childhood experiences, Skinner agrees but suggests that the connections are based on the reinforcement history of the person, not some vague concept of conflicts between id and ego  [21]  . In the Freudian understanding of human nature, the person is born with instincts, hence the development of the drive and unconscious psychology, as opposed to the Watsonian perspective where humans are born tabula rasa. The behaviorist theorist Skinner describes the inner life as a black box. He acknowledges its existence but he sees it in behaviorist terms. For him the private inner life is also behavior  [22]  . However, in the view of the major differences presented above we are enabled to draw the conclusion that psychoanalysis and behaviorism have as a starting point different assumptions concerning human nature and therefore, develop at the conceptual- the oretical and practical-therapeutic level towards two distinct finalities. This point is very well made clear by Watson in one of his famous quotes: Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and Ill guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant -chief and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for thousands of years  [23]  . Contributions to new developments Despite all its limitations, the behaviorist approach has some positive points as well: provided psychology with new and quantifiable concepts, opened the gate to new theories and explanations in psychology, crated more realistic methods. Somehow ironically, one of the major contributions made by behaviorism concerns the possibilities of research opened towards the investigation of cognitive processes that they initially rejected, which will fundament the new cognitive approach in psychology. For example, Edward Tolman, regarded as one of the founders of the cognitive approach, considered himself a behaviorist though not a radical behaviorist like Skinner. In addition, the study of many cognitive issues, such as observational learning imitation) and the use of hypotheses in problem solving, began with similar behaviorist studies of animals. Where the introspectionists failed in their attempts to make sense out of mental processes the behaviorists have pointed the way to new possibil ities for a scientific psychology of the mind  [24]  . Neobehaviorism introduces the meditational processes (motive, emotion) between stimuli and response.