Linguistics research Essay Example for Free

Linguistics research Essay 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. . 4 Design features: it referred to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. 5. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 6. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 7. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 8. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 9. Parole: it referred to the actual phenomena or data of linguistics. V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary: 1. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail. First of all, language is a system, because Elements of language are com ­ bined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same ob ­ject in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just Symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by conven ­ tion. Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. The term human in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term â€Å"communication means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their commu ­ nicative needs. 2. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples. 1) Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no nec ­ essary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2) Productivity Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con ­ struction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. 3) Duality The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or dou ­ ble articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it. 4) Displacement Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. 5) Cultural transmission Human beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically trans ­ mitted. 3. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study? The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the de ­ scription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time. 4. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written? First, the spoken form is prior to the writ ­ ten form and most writing systems are derived from The spoken form of lan ­ guage. Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue. 5. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole? The distinct, ion between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 6. (1) What if there were no language? (2) What if there were only one language the world over? (3) What can we learn from this Bible story? Language is powerful as a tool of human communication. 7. (1) What measures do you suggest for protecting dialects as well as languages? (2) Do you think that someday people all over the world will speak only one language, or someday no dialect will exist? 8. Can our pets learn human languages? Why or why not? No. They are genetically not endowed with the 9. What role does body language play in language commun

The Influence of OPEC Essay -- Trade Organizations Economy Essays

The Influence of OPEC The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, OPEC, was formed in Baghdad, Iraq in 1960 to coordinate and unify the policies of petroleum exporting countries. According to OPEC, their main objective is to ensure the â€Å"stabilization of oil prices† and the securing of a steady income to oil producing nations. In order to achieve this objective, the OPEC member nations meet at least bi-annually to decide whether to raise or lower their collective oil production in order to maintain the prices they deem as â€Å"stable.† The main factors that are considered when formulating petroleum policy are the forecasts for economic growth rates and the projected demand for petroleum. (www.opec.org) Exemplary of the importance of OPEC is that the 11 member countries, (with the main contributor being Saudi Arabia), produce about 40% of the world’s crude oil, and account for 55% of the world’s crude oil exports. At the end of 2001, OPEC had reserves of nearly 850 billion barrels of crude oil, which represents nearly 80% of the world total of over 1 trillion barrels. (www.platts.com/features/gasoline) As these numbers indicate, OPEC produces so much oil that they are in a position to exert considerable influence on petroleum supply levels and manipulate the price. The means by which OPEC exerts its influence is through setting production quotas. OPEC sets individual production quotas for each member country that serve as â€Å"production targets† to ensure the level of petroleum supplied by OPEC does not exceed the demand for petroleum. These â€Å"production targets† for each country add up to a â€Å"ceiling† that OPEC desires not to exceed. In reality however, OPEC countries have traditionally exceeded the proposed ceiling. In October of 2002, OPEC set a ceiling of nearly 22 million barrels to be produced per day by the OPEC 10. However, nearly 25 million barrels were produced, 3 million more than the proposed ceiling. Iraq is not included in the quota system because their exports are controlled by the U.N. based on the â€Å"food for oil† program, hence the â€Å"OPEC 10† instead of â€Å"OPEC 11.† (http://www.eia.doe.gov) With the majority of OPEC oil coming from Middle Eastern countries, the politics of the Middle East and in particular, the Persian Gulf, have played an important factor in the policies OPEC decides upon despite the fact that OP... ...educe dependence on imported oil is to reduce dependence on petroleum altogether. And the best way to do this is to increase efficiency and reduce demand of oil. OPEC still has considerable influence in determining the price per barrel of petroleum by setting quotas, but their best days are behind them. The emergence of non-OPEC exporters such as Canada, Russia, and Mexico have stripped the cartel of its power to single-handedly manipulate the petroleum market. The U.S. has benefited from the increased production of petroleum by non-OPEC nations and thus reduced their annual imports from the OPEC countries in recent years. However, the United States needs to address its obtuse energy policy and accept the fact that oil will not last forever and implement strategies that stress efficiency and will reduce the demand for fossil fuels in general. Works Cited (www.eia.doe.gov/mer)- Internet Website (http://www.nrdc.org/air/energy/fensec.asp)- Internet Website (www.opec.org)- Internet Website (www.petroleumworld.com)- Internet Website (www.platts.com/features/gasoline)- Internet Website (www.ssc.upenn.edu/polisci/psci260/OPECweb/OPECHIST.HTM)- Internet Website The Influence of OPEC Essay -- Trade Organizations Economy Essays The Influence of OPEC The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, OPEC, was formed in Baghdad, Iraq in 1960 to coordinate and unify the policies of petroleum exporting countries. According to OPEC, their main objective is to ensure the â€Å"stabilization of oil prices† and the securing of a steady income to oil producing nations. In order to achieve this objective, the OPEC member nations meet at least bi-annually to decide whether to raise or lower their collective oil production in order to maintain the prices they deem as â€Å"stable.† The main factors that are considered when formulating petroleum policy are the forecasts for economic growth rates and the projected demand for petroleum. (www.opec.org) Exemplary of the importance of OPEC is that the 11 member countries, (with the main contributor being Saudi Arabia), produce about 40% of the world’s crude oil, and account for 55% of the world’s crude oil exports. At the end of 2001, OPEC had reserves of nearly 850 billion barrels of crude oil, which represents nearly 80% of the world total of over 1 trillion barrels. (www.platts.com/features/gasoline) As these numbers indicate, OPEC produces so much oil that they are in a position to exert considerable influence on petroleum supply levels and manipulate the price. The means by which OPEC exerts its influence is through setting production quotas. OPEC sets individual production quotas for each member country that serve as â€Å"production targets† to ensure the level of petroleum supplied by OPEC does not exceed the demand for petroleum. These â€Å"production targets† for each country add up to a â€Å"ceiling† that OPEC desires not to exceed. In reality however, OPEC countries have traditionally exceeded the proposed ceiling. In October of 2002, OPEC set a ceiling of nearly 22 million barrels to be produced per day by the OPEC 10. However, nearly 25 million barrels were produced, 3 million more than the proposed ceiling. Iraq is not included in the quota system because their exports are controlled by the U.N. based on the â€Å"food for oil† program, hence the â€Å"OPEC 10† instead of â€Å"OPEC 11.† (http://www.eia.doe.gov) With the majority of OPEC oil coming from Middle Eastern countries, the politics of the Middle East and in particular, the Persian Gulf, have played an important factor in the policies OPEC decides upon despite the fact that OP... ...educe dependence on imported oil is to reduce dependence on petroleum altogether. And the best way to do this is to increase efficiency and reduce demand of oil. OPEC still has considerable influence in determining the price per barrel of petroleum by setting quotas, but their best days are behind them. The emergence of non-OPEC exporters such as Canada, Russia, and Mexico have stripped the cartel of its power to single-handedly manipulate the petroleum market. The U.S. has benefited from the increased production of petroleum by non-OPEC nations and thus reduced their annual imports from the OPEC countries in recent years. However, the United States needs to address its obtuse energy policy and accept the fact that oil will not last forever and implement strategies that stress efficiency and will reduce the demand for fossil fuels in general. Works Cited (www.eia.doe.gov/mer)- Internet Website (http://www.nrdc.org/air/energy/fensec.asp)- Internet Website (www.opec.org)- Internet Website (www.petroleumworld.com)- Internet Website (www.platts.com/features/gasoline)- Internet Website (www.ssc.upenn.edu/polisci/psci260/OPECweb/OPECHIST.HTM)- Internet Website

Hamlet’s Psychological Aspect Essay

I decided to do this research work because I have enjoyed a lot reading this play: Hamlet. The inner motivations and psyche of this character have captured my attention. Therefore, the aim of this research is to depict Hamlet’s attitudes during the play. I will try to approach to his real feelings on life and death taking into consideration what critics and researchers have said about Hamlet. In order to clarify Hamlet’s personality and behaviour, I will provide some aspects of the historical context in which Shakespeare was inspired to write this play, and a brief summary of it to take into account the plot. Finally, I will make a conclusion in which I will try to summarise the most important impressions of this research. Historical Context of the play Shakespeare wrote Hamlet in the last years of the reign of Queen Elizabeth 1, who had been the queen of England more than forty years. As she had no children the question of who would succeed her was a situation that provoked anxiety at that time. Due to this fact, researchers agree that many of Shakespeare’s plays from this period concern transfers of power from one monarch to the next. Another important issue dealt with in his plays is the general sense of anxiety, fear, uncertainty, betrayal and revenge. For instance, Hamlet displays all the themes mentioned above. Shakespeare was able to sum up the most impotant values of the Renaissance. Cultural phenomenon that began in the fifteenth-century and proclaimed the humanism: a new thought that revalued the social and popular aspect of life. People who belonged to the Renaissance period claimed that human beings lived in a world of appearances, in which they tried to hide their realities, that is to say, their deepest desires and what they actually were. Hamlet had to face one of the most difficult realities: injustice. A task that presents a dilemma to him: â€Å"to be or not to be†. While pointing out questions that cannot be answered, the play as a whole chiefly demonstrates the difficulty of knowing the truth about other people: who are guilty or innocent, which their motivations and feelings are. Brief Summary of the play Shakespeare begins the play with the death of the King of Denmark and the possession of the throne by the King’s brother Claudius, instead of the King’s son, that is to say the prince Hamlet, who was supposed to be the next in line. What is more, the new king Claudius suddenly married Gertrude, the dead king’s widow. Thus, the prince Hamlet got depressed by the unexpected situation. One night, Hamlet’s father appears as a ghost to tell Hamlet that he had been murdered by his own brother Claudius, that is to say, Hamlet ´s uncle. In his anger, Hamlet decides to fulfill his father’s request, which is to avenge his death. In order to confirm what the ghost has said, Hamlet organizes a play in which he represents the assessination scene. While the play is being performed, Claudius stands up and goes out feeling guilty. At the moment, Hamlet confirms the truth and discusses the situation with his mother. As Hamlet notices that someone is spying on them behind the curtains, he stabs his sword without checking who this person is. As a result, he kills Polonius, Claudius’s chief councillor. When Ophelia, Polonius ´s daughter, is informed about her father’s death she reacts with madness and eventually falls in a stream and drowns. After that, Laertes, Ophelia’s brother, is told that Hamlet is involved in Polonius’s death and Ophelia’s madness. Therefore, he wants to avenge his father’s and sister’s death trying to eliminate Hamlet. As Claudius promised Laertes to help him with the revenge, they plan to kill Hamlet as if by accident with a poisoned sword in a fencing match. Claudius also plans to offer Hamlet a poisoned drink during the fight. When the fencing contest begins, Hamlet’s mother Gertrude drinks the poisoned drink before Caludius can stop her and she dies. Hamlet turns away and Laertes wounds him with the poisoned sword, but Hamlet goes on fighting. During the struggle, they exchange swords and Hamlet wounds Laertes, who confesses the plan telling Hamlet that he is also sure to die from the effect of the poison. After hearing the truth, Hamlet stabs Claudius with the poisoned sword and forces him to drink the poison, too. Finally, while Hamlet is dying by the effect of the poison, he orders one of his friends called Horatio to tell the terrible story of the happening to everyone.

Personal Responsibility Leads to Success - 2418 Words

Personal Responsibility Leads To Success Personal responsibility to me means a person is capable of being accountable for his or her actions, family, college education, and career goals. To achieve the desired success in life it is the person responsibility. If one does not take responsibility for himself or herself, he or she will never be successful in anything he or she plans to achieve. To possess the following qualities: One must be self-discipline, practice on improving his or her time management and scheduling skills, and learn how to create a stress less environment. Doing these things, he/she can see how his or her personal responsibilities can lead to his or her success in college, family, and his or her professional career.†¦show more content†¦2. He or she should write all assignments and other appointments on the calendar, according to the assignment due date or the appointments scheduled day in different colors of ink or highlight each one with different colors of highlighter. 3. After a task is complete, mark through it so that one will know that he or she has completed that particular task. Aubin (2013) stated â€Å"There are many benefits to having time management skills. In general you are more effective in getting your work done. You can stop being reactive in your life and start working productively towards your goal† (Aubin, 2013). Those people, whom found they juggling school, work, and their home lives and whom did not have a time management schedule, usually would have to go back to their class syllabus or search online through their class e-mail to make sure that their assignments are turned in by the deadlines. Nevertheless, once those same people developed a schedule that helps them with time management they find it is easier to move forward. They also realize that after developing a schedule it helped them reach their goals. The last quality one needs to possess in personal responsibility to lead to success is a good stress management skill. There are probably fewer people who can say that they are not stressed out form work, family, or going to colle ge. Stress is going to come; you will face stress from family, work and college (Smith, 2012). Take control ofShow MoreRelatedHow Personal Responsibility Will Lead to My Success Essay1089 Words   |  5 PagesHow Personal Responsibility Will Lead to My Success Personal responsibility means to me holding yourself accountable for not only the successes in your life but also your downfalls. If a person can do this they will not only be successful in their education but in their careers and life in general. 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